Social work has its roots in the struggle of society to deal with poverty and the resultant problems. Therefore, social work is intricately linked with the idea of charity work; but must be understood in broader terms. The concept of charity goes back to ancient times, and the practice of providing for the poor has roots in all major world religions.[1]
Pre-Modern history
In the West, when Constantine I legalized the Christian Church, the newly legitimised church set up poorhouses, homes for the aged, hospitals, and orphanages.[2][3][4] These were often funded, at least in part, from grants from the Empire.[5]
By 590 the church had a system for circulating the consumables to the poor: associated with each parish was a diaconium or office of the deacon.
As there was no effective bureaucracy below city government that was capable of charitable activities, the clergy served this role in the west up through the 18th century.
During the Middle Ages, the Christian church had vast influence on European society and charity was considered to be a responsibility and a sign of one’s piety. This charity was in the form of direct relief (for example, giving money, food, or other material goods to alleviate a particular need), as opposed to trying to change the root causes of poverty.
The practice and profession of social work has a relatively modern (19th century) and scientific origin.[6]
In the West, when Constantine I legalized the Christian Church, the newly legitimised church set up poorhouses, homes for the aged, hospitals, and orphanages.[2][3][4] These were often funded, at least in part, from grants from the Empire.[5]
By 590 the church had a system for circulating the consumables to the poor: associated with each parish was a diaconium or office of the deacon.
As there was no effective bureaucracy below city government that was capable of charitable activities, the clergy served this role in the west up through the 18th century.
During the Middle Ages, the Christian church had vast influence on European society and charity was considered to be a responsibility and a sign of one’s piety. This charity was in the form of direct relief (for example, giving money, food, or other material goods to alleviate a particular need), as opposed to trying to change the root causes of poverty.
The practice and profession of social work has a relatively modern (19th century) and scientific origin.[6]
Modern history
Social work, as a profession, originated in the 19th century. The movement began primarily in the United States and England. After the end of feudalism, the poor were seen as a more direct threat to the social order,[citation needed] and so the state formed an organized system to care for them. In England, the Poor Law served this purpose. This system of laws sorted the poor into different categories, such as the able bodied poor, the impotent poor, and the idle poor. This system developed different responses to these different groups.
Social work, as a profession, originated in the 19th century. The movement began primarily in the United States and England. After the end of feudalism, the poor were seen as a more direct threat to the social order,[citation needed] and so the state formed an organized system to care for them. In England, the Poor Law served this purpose. This system of laws sorted the poor into different categories, such as the able bodied poor, the impotent poor, and the idle poor. This system developed different responses to these different groups.
The 19th century ushered in the Industrial Revolution. There was a great leap in technological and scientific achievement, but there was also a great migration to urban areas throughout the Western world. This led to many social problems, which in turn led to an increase in social activism.[7] Also with the dawn of the 19th century came a great "missionary" push from many Protestant denominations. Some of these mission efforts (urban missions), attempted to resolve the problems inherent in large cities like poverty, prostitution, disease, and other afflictions. In the United States workers known as "friendly visitors", stipended by church and other charitable bodies, worked through direct relief, prayer, and evangelism to alleviate these problems.[6] In Europe, chaplains or almoners were appointed to administer the church's mission to the poor.
During this time, rescue societies were initiated to find more appropriate means of self-support for women involved in prostitution.[citation needed] Mental asylums grew to assist in taking care of the mentally ill. A new philosophy of "scientific charity" emerged, which stated charity should be "secular, rational and empirical as opposed to sectarian, sentimental, and dogmatic.[8]" In the late 1880s, a new system to provide aid for social ills came in to being, which became known as the settlement movement.[9] The settlement movement focused on the causes of poverty through the "three Rs" - Research, Reform, and Residence. They provided a variety of services including educational, legal, and health services. These programs also advocated changes in social policy. Workers in the settlement movement immersed themselves in the culture of those they were helping.
In America, the various approaches to social work led to a fundamental question – is social work a profession? This debate can be traced back to the early 20th century debate between Mary Richmond's Charity Organization Society (COS) and Jane Addams's Settlement House Movement. The essence of this debate was whether the problem should be approached from COS' traditional, scientific method focused on efficiency and prevention or the Settlement House Movement's immersion into the problem, blurring the lines of practitioner and client.[10]
Even as many schools of social work opened and formalized processes for social work began to be developed, the question lingered. In 1915, at the National Conference of Charities and Corrections, Dr. Abraham Flexner spoke on the topic "Is Social Work a Profession?" He contended that it was not because it lacked specialized knowledge and specific application of theoretical and intellectual knowledge to solve human and social problems.[11] This led to the professionalization of social work, concentrating on case work and the scientific method.
In America, the various approaches to social work led to a fundamental question – is social work a profession? This debate can be traced back to the early 20th century debate between Mary Richmond's Charity Organization Society (COS) and Jane Addams's Settlement House Movement. The essence of this debate was whether the problem should be approached from COS' traditional, scientific method focused on efficiency and prevention or the Settlement House Movement's immersion into the problem, blurring the lines of practitioner and client.[10]
Even as many schools of social work opened and formalized processes for social work began to be developed, the question lingered. In 1915, at the National Conference of Charities and Corrections, Dr. Abraham Flexner spoke on the topic "Is Social Work a Profession?" He contended that it was not because it lacked specialized knowledge and specific application of theoretical and intellectual knowledge to solve human and social problems.[11] This led to the professionalization of social work, concentrating on case work and the scientific method.
American History
Following European settlement of northern America, the only social welfare was in the area of public health. When epidemics occurred, quarantine facilities were built to prevent contamination. As populations grew, Almhouses were built to house vulnerable people with no other support, including people with a long term illness or older people without families. The first recorded Almshouse was built in 1713 near Philadelphia by William Penn, and was only open to Quakers. A second one was built nearby in 1728, this time with public money. In 1736 New York opened the Poor House of the City of New York (later renamed Bellevue Hospital) and in 1737 New Orleans opened the Saint John's Hospital to serve the poor of the city [12].
Over the next 80 years, the facilities began to change. The precursors to modern hospitals began to form on the grounds of Almshouses, while the Almshouses themselves focused more and more on vulnerable people.
Modern social work in America has its roots in the mass migrations of the 19th Century. Many of the migrants landed in New York and moved to other eastern cities, where mass crowding lead to social problems and ill health [12]. Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell was the United States' first female doctor [13] who set up the New York Infirmary for Indigent Women and Children in 1853. The dispensary was run to assist the poor communities of East Side, and it soon diversified beyond a basic pharmacy, providing social assessments and support to local families. In 1889 Jane Addams was a young medical student who set up Hull House in Chicago to work with poor and immigrant communities. The house was both a community service centre and a social research program. Precursors to modern social work arose in Blackwell's infirmary and in Hull House as health professionals began to work with social determinants of poor health [12].
The first professional social worker to be hired in the United States was Garnet Pelton, in 1905 at the Massachusetts General Hospital. Garnet retired after six months due to contracting tuberculosis in the course of her work. She was replaced by Ida Cannon who worked in the role for a further forty years. Dr. Richard Clarke Cabot was the a key advocate in the creation of the role, as he believed there to be a link between tuberculosis and social conditions. Both Pelton and Cannon had trained as nurses before taking up the role. Cabot was in charge of the outpatient ward of the hospital, and together with the newly created social workers, they redefined the way in which health and wellbeing was managed. The economic, social, family and psychological conditions that underpinned many of the conditions that patients presented with were recognised for the first time. Social workers would work in a complementary relationship with doctors, the former concentrating on physiological health, and the latter on social health. In addition to this, he saw that social work could improve medicine by providing a critical perspective on it while working alongside it in an organisational setting.
This approach soon spread through other American hospitals, and in 1911, there were 44 social work departments in 14 different cities. Two years later, the number of social work departments had grown to 200.
Following European settlement of northern America, the only social welfare was in the area of public health. When epidemics occurred, quarantine facilities were built to prevent contamination. As populations grew, Almhouses were built to house vulnerable people with no other support, including people with a long term illness or older people without families. The first recorded Almshouse was built in 1713 near Philadelphia by William Penn, and was only open to Quakers. A second one was built nearby in 1728, this time with public money. In 1736 New York opened the Poor House of the City of New York (later renamed Bellevue Hospital) and in 1737 New Orleans opened the Saint John's Hospital to serve the poor of the city [12].
Over the next 80 years, the facilities began to change. The precursors to modern hospitals began to form on the grounds of Almshouses, while the Almshouses themselves focused more and more on vulnerable people.
Modern social work in America has its roots in the mass migrations of the 19th Century. Many of the migrants landed in New York and moved to other eastern cities, where mass crowding lead to social problems and ill health [12]. Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell was the United States' first female doctor [13] who set up the New York Infirmary for Indigent Women and Children in 1853. The dispensary was run to assist the poor communities of East Side, and it soon diversified beyond a basic pharmacy, providing social assessments and support to local families. In 1889 Jane Addams was a young medical student who set up Hull House in Chicago to work with poor and immigrant communities. The house was both a community service centre and a social research program. Precursors to modern social work arose in Blackwell's infirmary and in Hull House as health professionals began to work with social determinants of poor health [12].
The first professional social worker to be hired in the United States was Garnet Pelton, in 1905 at the Massachusetts General Hospital. Garnet retired after six months due to contracting tuberculosis in the course of her work. She was replaced by Ida Cannon who worked in the role for a further forty years. Dr. Richard Clarke Cabot was the a key advocate in the creation of the role, as he believed there to be a link between tuberculosis and social conditions. Both Pelton and Cannon had trained as nurses before taking up the role. Cabot was in charge of the outpatient ward of the hospital, and together with the newly created social workers, they redefined the way in which health and wellbeing was managed. The economic, social, family and psychological conditions that underpinned many of the conditions that patients presented with were recognised for the first time. Social workers would work in a complementary relationship with doctors, the former concentrating on physiological health, and the latter on social health. In addition to this, he saw that social work could improve medicine by providing a critical perspective on it while working alongside it in an organisational setting.
This approach soon spread through other American hospitals, and in 1911, there were 44 social work departments in 14 different cities. Two years later, the number of social work departments had grown to 200.
Professionalisation
After 1905, most social workers were trained as nurses. The American Association of Hospital Social Workers was set up in 1918 to increase the links between formal education and hospital practice. In 1929 there were ten university courses in medical social work. Around this time, psychiatry and psychology began to compete with social work as the complementary discourse to medicine in hospitals. Social work practice adapted to this by aligning itself more closely with psychoanalytic ideas, and became less concerned with living conditions and social health. While this detracted from the social concerns, it added a more scientific basis to dealing with patients, and challenging behaviours were more likely to be seen as a mental disfunction than poor moral character. [12] The increase of social spending after World War Two saw another rise in the number of social workers.
NOTE: In their 2002 article, "What is Humanistic Sociology"--appearing in The American Sociologist (Volume 33, No. 4)--William Du Bois and R. Dean Wright see the creation of the discipline of social work as a political effort within the establishment of sociology to keep its original action-oriented, "change the world" mentality separate from the "rational, masculine science of 'real' sociology (p. 7).
After 1905, most social workers were trained as nurses. The American Association of Hospital Social Workers was set up in 1918 to increase the links between formal education and hospital practice. In 1929 there were ten university courses in medical social work. Around this time, psychiatry and psychology began to compete with social work as the complementary discourse to medicine in hospitals. Social work practice adapted to this by aligning itself more closely with psychoanalytic ideas, and became less concerned with living conditions and social health. While this detracted from the social concerns, it added a more scientific basis to dealing with patients, and challenging behaviours were more likely to be seen as a mental disfunction than poor moral character. [12] The increase of social spending after World War Two saw another rise in the number of social workers.
NOTE: In their 2002 article, "What is Humanistic Sociology"--appearing in The American Sociologist (Volume 33, No. 4)--William Du Bois and R. Dean Wright see the creation of the discipline of social work as a political effort within the establishment of sociology to keep its original action-oriented, "change the world" mentality separate from the "rational, masculine science of 'real' sociology (p. 7).
Australian History
Social work as a profession in Australia developed later than in England or America, with the first professional social workers being hired in the 1920s. Social work training began in Australia in 1940 at the University of Sydney. The profession took direction from the established schools in England until the 1960s, when a more American model took hold. Most high level training and theory was imported from abroad until the 1980s. Some Australian social work writers such as Jim Ife has criticised the impact that this has had on Australians being able to develop culturally appropriate theories and practices. Since the 1990s, Australian social work has increasingly affiliated itself with Pacific Islander and New Zealand approaches [14].
Social Work has been a mostly public sector or not-for-profit sector profession in Australia, with private practice being rare. The profession has experienced changes in two different direction in the last 30 years. One is a pull towards a more managerial, professionalised model, and the other is to a more community based, deprofessionalised approach. Further to this has been the trend by large organisations to replace the "jack of all trades" social work approach with less highly trained, more technical positions. Since the 1990s, other reactions to managerial control of social work have followed theories of feminism, ecological sustainability and critical theories.[14]
Social work as a profession in Australia developed later than in England or America, with the first professional social workers being hired in the 1920s. Social work training began in Australia in 1940 at the University of Sydney. The profession took direction from the established schools in England until the 1960s, when a more American model took hold. Most high level training and theory was imported from abroad until the 1980s. Some Australian social work writers such as Jim Ife has criticised the impact that this has had on Australians being able to develop culturally appropriate theories and practices. Since the 1990s, Australian social work has increasingly affiliated itself with Pacific Islander and New Zealand approaches [14].
Social Work has been a mostly public sector or not-for-profit sector profession in Australia, with private practice being rare. The profession has experienced changes in two different direction in the last 30 years. One is a pull towards a more managerial, professionalised model, and the other is to a more community based, deprofessionalised approach. Further to this has been the trend by large organisations to replace the "jack of all trades" social work approach with less highly trained, more technical positions. Since the 1990s, other reactions to managerial control of social work have followed theories of feminism, ecological sustainability and critical theories.[14]
English History
The growth of social work in England as a discipline had similar parallels to the American experience of mass migration and social upheaval. The Industrial Revolution was a major cause of these changes, as social and economic conditions changed, resulting in the massive growth of cities. The first social workers were called hospital almoners, and were based in medical institutions. The Royal Free Hospital hired Mary Stewart as the first almoner in 1895. Her role was to assess people requesting treatment at the hospital to ensure that they were considered "deserving enough" of the free treatment. The role soon developed to cover the provision of other social programs, and by 1905 other hospitals had created similar roles. By this time, the Hospital Almoners Council had been formed to oversee the new profession [12].
The growth of social work in England as a discipline had similar parallels to the American experience of mass migration and social upheaval. The Industrial Revolution was a major cause of these changes, as social and economic conditions changed, resulting in the massive growth of cities. The first social workers were called hospital almoners, and were based in medical institutions. The Royal Free Hospital hired Mary Stewart as the first almoner in 1895. Her role was to assess people requesting treatment at the hospital to ensure that they were considered "deserving enough" of the free treatment. The role soon developed to cover the provision of other social programs, and by 1905 other hospitals had created similar roles. By this time, the Hospital Almoners Council had been formed to oversee the new profession [12].
References
^ "Religion". Middle School Lesson Plans. Global Envision. Retrieved 2008-04-09.
^ [By Alexander Clarence Flick (1909). The Rise of the Mediaeval Church and Its Influence on the Civilisation of Western Europe from the First to the Thirteenth Century. http://books.google.com/books?id=ApLaUMO0ZycC]
^ [G. KALANTZIS (2006). THE HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF SOCIAL MEDICINE IN BYZANTIUM (330-1453 AD) http://www.ishm2006.hu/scientific/abstract.php?ID=138]
^ [C. GILLEARD (2007) Old age in Byzantine society Ageing & Society (2007), 27 : 623-642 Cambridge University Press http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract;jsessionid=4A665169DCB94F67A7CF47ECC60F22C0.tomcat1?fromPage=online&aid=1316632]
^ Burckhardt, Jacob (1967). The Age of Constantine the Great. Random House (Vintage).
^ a b Huff, Dan. "Chapter I. Scientific Philanthropy (1860-1900)". The Social Work History Station. Boise State University. Retrieved 2008-02-20.
^ "Social Work History". University of Edinburgh. Retrieved 2008-02-20.
^ Huff, Dan. "Chapter I.2 Missionaries & Volunteers". The Social Work History Station. Boise State University. Retrieved 2008-02-20.
^ Huff, Dan. "Chapter II. Settlements (1880-1900)". The Social Work History Station. Boise State University. Retrieved 2008-02-20.
^ Parker-Oliver, Debra; Demiris, George (April 2006). "Social Work Informatics: A New Specialty". Social Work (National Association of Social Workers) 51 (2): 127–134. PMID 16858918. Retrieved 2008-02-19.
^ "From Charitable Volunteers to Architects of Social Welfare: A Brief History of Social Work". University of Michigan. Retrieved 2007-02-20.
^ a b c d e Gehlert, S. in Gehlert, S. and T.A. Browne (2006). Chapter Two: The Conceptual Underpinnings of social work in health care. Handbook of Health Social Work. New Jersey:WILEY
^ M. A. Elston, "Blackwell, Elizabeth (1821–1910)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 accessed 29 Dec 2008
^ a b Ife, J. in Mayadas, N., Watts, T., Elliott, D. (1997). Chapter Twenty Two:Australia International handbook on social work theory and practice. Greenwood Publishing Group
^ "Religion". Middle School Lesson Plans. Global Envision. Retrieved 2008-04-09.
^ [By Alexander Clarence Flick (1909). The Rise of the Mediaeval Church and Its Influence on the Civilisation of Western Europe from the First to the Thirteenth Century. http://books.google.com/books?id=ApLaUMO0ZycC]
^ [G. KALANTZIS (2006). THE HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF SOCIAL MEDICINE IN BYZANTIUM (330-1453 AD) http://www.ishm2006.hu/scientific/abstract.php?ID=138]
^ [C. GILLEARD (2007) Old age in Byzantine society Ageing & Society (2007), 27 : 623-642 Cambridge University Press http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract;jsessionid=4A665169DCB94F67A7CF47ECC60F22C0.tomcat1?fromPage=online&aid=1316632]
^ Burckhardt, Jacob (1967). The Age of Constantine the Great. Random House (Vintage).
^ a b Huff, Dan. "Chapter I. Scientific Philanthropy (1860-1900)". The Social Work History Station. Boise State University. Retrieved 2008-02-20.
^ "Social Work History". University of Edinburgh. Retrieved 2008-02-20.
^ Huff, Dan. "Chapter I.2 Missionaries & Volunteers". The Social Work History Station. Boise State University. Retrieved 2008-02-20.
^ Huff, Dan. "Chapter II. Settlements (1880-1900)". The Social Work History Station. Boise State University. Retrieved 2008-02-20.
^ Parker-Oliver, Debra; Demiris, George (April 2006). "Social Work Informatics: A New Specialty". Social Work (National Association of Social Workers) 51 (2): 127–134. PMID 16858918. Retrieved 2008-02-19.
^ "From Charitable Volunteers to Architects of Social Welfare: A Brief History of Social Work". University of Michigan. Retrieved 2007-02-20.
^ a b c d e Gehlert, S. in Gehlert, S. and T.A. Browne (2006). Chapter Two: The Conceptual Underpinnings of social work in health care. Handbook of Health Social Work. New Jersey:WILEY
^ M. A. Elston, "Blackwell, Elizabeth (1821–1910)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 accessed 29 Dec 2008
^ a b Ife, J. in Mayadas, N., Watts, T., Elliott, D. (1997). Chapter Twenty Two:Australia International handbook on social work theory and practice. Greenwood Publishing Group
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_social_work
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